Microfinance - A Solution to the Water and Sanitation Crisis? (Part 2)

   Despite my last blog posts talking about the many merits of microfinance, it has been used in developing countries to varying degrees of success. In India, the microfinance funding crisis in 2010 caused a complete slow down of the market as banks became unsure of lending due to the uncertainty of the sector (Tremolet and Kumar, 2013).

   Additionally, criticisms of microfinance have lauded it a ‘Neoliberal Fairytale’, as without a large injection of government or aid funds, the microfinance institutions charge very high interest rates - without a subsidy, this can soar up to 50% and beyond (Bateman and Chang, 2009). Businesses using microfinance loans that latch onto a good business idea that is accessible to poorer people will eventually result in a ‘pile-up’ of people taking on this idea, leading to over-saturation of the market. Overcrowding results from limited options in terms of technology, skills, and financial resources. Ultimately, microfinance can do little to solve these problems.

   However, these criticisms are mostly due to using microfinance for money making, but the schemes I am interested in are for sanitation where microfinance has been proven successful. A report commissioned by WaterAid found that in Tanzania, building a latrine can cost around 112% of a poor household’s yearly income. Therefore, being able to finance building a latrine through microcredit is very important.

Sanitation in Africa is vital to ensure water sources are not contaminated. Source

   In Africa, there are a number of different ways microfinance loans for sanitation can be ran. Traditional methods, Trontines’, consists of a groups of people, generally with a similar age or economic standing, who pool their financial resources. The aim of this is to reinforce social solidarity through financing activities with a shared common interest (Kouassi-Komlan and Fonseca, 2004). In West Africa, village and cooperative savings account and credit are another way: decentralised financial instruments which fall under a regional law adopted by the Council of Ministers of West African Economical and Monetary Union (UEMOA). This has emerged in response to demands for financing from members of communities and cooperatives in the last few years, and has become very popular. NGO projects are another source through credit schemes that have been set up in order to fight poverty and create employment through private sector development. They may also lend money for sanitation schemes with a low interest rate (Kouassi-Komlan and Fonseca, 2004).

   One of the most common problems with microfinance are its needs for solid guarantees, the management capacity of the financing organisations and their lack of enforcement of the legal framework when these organisations cannot fulfil their obligations. Additionally, not everyone has access to microfinance; in Kenya, only around 700,000 of the 9-10 million poor have access. Which proposes the question: is microfinance really available to the world’s poorest? Although I think microfinance can be a great initiative to fund sanitation facilities, I believe that it cannot be the only answer. It is important to keep researching and finding new innovative ways of funding sanitation coverage for the poorest in Africa.

Microfinance - the solution for the water and sanitation crisis? (Part 1)

Microfinance, alternatively called microcredit, is a term to describe financial services to those with low-income, or those with no/limited access to ‘typical’ banking systems. In essence, groups or individuals are given small loans with a regular repayment fee, to enable them to lift themselves out of poverty. Typically, microfinance has been used for income generation; to enable people to purchase items such as sewing machines to start their own business or become more employable. This ‘revolution’ in finance has allowed over 150 million low-income people around the world to receive small loans without collateral, to buy insurance and build up assets (Armendariz and Morduck, 2010). Microfinance has been vital for women's’ empowerment in many low-income countries, as it enables them to become more independent by making their own income and building transferable skills (Cheston and Kuhn, 2002).

However, more recently, people have started to use microfinance to invest in health and education. This has created an opening for microfinance to be used for the provision of safe water and sanitation supplies - particularly in regards to sanitation. There is a lack of universal access to water and sanitation that results in well over 1 million preventable deaths each year, and in both sectors, there is a critical need for greater sustainability (Montgomery et al., 2009). Sanitation has been cited as ‘the most important medical advance in the past 150 years’ (British Medical Journal, 2007) which microfinance has the potential to provide.

Interest repayments from a microfinance loan in India. Source: blogs.lse.ac.uk

In India, microfinance has been used most widely to fund local water and sanitation projects. Last year, I aided a peer’s work on water and sanitation in Bangalore, India, and found a local NGO to be financing small community groups led by woman to install toilets and drainage systems in their village. In urban India, often poorer households must rely on alternatives to state provision of water and sanitation, paying prices that range from 2-20 times more per litre of water than households with water connections (McPhail, 1993). Davis et al. (2008) research in Hyderabad posed the question: why do poor households choose more expensive but lower quality water and sanitation services than richer households? The answer lay in the mismatch of water and sanitation service pricing, and the financial management in low-income households. For example, poorer households tend to earn money and manage funds on a day-to-day basis, and thus find it difficult to save money to pay a monthly or bi-monthly utility bill (Whittington et al, 1991).

When Davis et al. conducted their research, households were asked about their interest in obtaining a microfinance loan of between 3,000-10,000 Rs. in order to obtain a municipal water connection, a toilet with a sewer connection, or both. By monitoring the WaterCredit programme developed by the US NGO WaterPartners International - which requires a family to form a joining liability group -  they found that respondents to their research were able to easily repay their loans, and build beneficial sanitation facilities.

There are, however, some people who are more sceptical of microfinance. Unfortunately, I am going to make this blog post come to a rather abrupt ending. In my next post, I will be looking at the arguments against microfinance, and asking the crucial questions: can the success of microfinance for water and sanitation in India be reproduced in Africa? And do these water and sanitation projects promote women’s empowerment? See you next time!

Why are Women Left Out of Important Decision Making?

Across Africa, water plays a significant part in the role of women. Men and women have been shown to use water differently, in Zimbabwe, women are playing more roles in water use and are often the’ users, managers and guardians’ of domestic water and hygiene (Makoni et al., 2004). In regards to sanitation, women’s lack of access can often have deadly consequences, and make them vulnerable to the risk of rape and attack (Mara et al., 2010).

So, why are women so often left out of the water and sanitation decision-making? In Uganda, although much of their policy approaches appear to be gender-sensitive, women have not been fully engaged in the debate on water and sanitation (Ebila, 2006). There is a push to change this, however, as the Directorate of Water Development (DWD) in 2003 introduced ‘gender-mainstreaming’ into into its future plans. The DWD began to acknowledge two main reasons for this new approach:

1. Water usage in communities is affected by the gender division of labour, which to a large extent is the social construction of each community; and
2. The development objective of the water sector is to improve “living conditions for the population of Uganda through better access to improved sustainable water and sanitation related services with a special focus on the poorer members of society” (DWD, 2003; Ebila, 2006). In Uganda, and indeed in most of Africa, the majority of the poorest of society are women.

To implement the core beliefs of this approach, the DWD managed to enforce a 50% mandatory level of the percentage of women on water and sanitation committees at village level. As of yet, the DWD has few women staff members, but they are planning to encourage more women to join with a zero tolerance policy to sexual harassment. These approaches are beginning to get more women to reach for leadership roles, which is vital to break-down gender stereotypes. The question is, however, whether a similar scheme of gender-mainstreaming can be rolled out across the rest of Africa where there are gender imbalances in policy making.

Gender and the provision of safe water and sanitation

Hi everyone, welcome to my blog! I am going to be talking about the provision of water and sanitation in Africa from a feminist perspective, by particularly looking into the gendered nature of these vital resources. Previously, I help conduct fieldwork in Bangalore, India, on water and sanitation provision by using funding from micro-finance projects. The results of the project showed an interesting link between society, gender, economics, oppression and water and sanitation. In this blog, I will hopefully be able to draw connections between my work in India and the similar issues facing women in Africa.

According to the statistics, water and sanitation provision worldwide is pretty shocking. 2.5 billion people across the world do not have access to a safe toilet (UNICEF), while 1 billion people do not have access to any sanitation at all and openly defecate (WHO). For safe water provision, the numbers are similar - around 748 million do not have access to safe water supplies (UNICEF). This problem is particularly pronounced in Africa, whereby reports of a water and sanitation 'crisis' litter NGO and international development websites (e.g. WSP) and is credited with limiting economic growth and education opportunities. In much of Africa, especially around the Sub-Saharan region, water is limited due to a dry climate with little precipitation. MacDonald et al. (2012), however, highlight how despite the water-stressed Sub-Saharan regions in Africa have little available freshwater supplies, they actually contain vast sums of groundwater stored beneath the surface in weathered crystalline rock aquifers. This presents an interesting dilemma; not only is this water non-renewable - it accumulated from previous wetter climates so would effectively have to be 'mined', but also governments have to decide whether bottom-up approaches (i.e. local water supplies in the form of communal pumps) or top-down, vast irrigation methods to address food scarcity issues would be more appropriate, or whether a balancing act of the two can be achieved.

In terms of sanitation access, Sub-Saharan Africa is trailing well behind its international counterparts. When looking at sanitation, it has become easy to lump water provision and sanitation together in International Development discourse despite having very different access needs and issues. Installing latrines and sewage networks into areas can often be costly, and is more of a pressing issue in rural regions than urban (UN). In many poor rural regions, micro-finance loans are available for the building of basic sanitation infrastructure, but this can vary in success. Being able to afford the interest on the repayment of the loans is a key limitation for sanitation when government provision is lacking.

Improved sanitation facilities in rural Sub-Saharan Africa. Source: Kunene

So, how is water and sanitation provision a gendered issue? There are many reasons why this is so; for instance, women who openly defecate in wild areas open themselves up to the risk of rape and attack, as well as the experience of loss of dignity. And in regards to water access, it is usually women who collect water so having a pump nearby would save time that they can spend in other areas such as education or work. Women also need safe water provision to ensure that, when pregnant, children are born healthy. Of course, safe water supply and sanitation access are intertwined, withgood sanitation infrastructure minimizing groundwater pollution. There are many reasons why it is such a heavily gendered issue, and I will explore these points and more, taking a critical approach to the topic on the rest of my blog! Thank you for reading, any feedback would be appreciated!